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Human immune system

The immune system is a collection of organs, tissues and cells whose work is aimed directly at protecting the body from various diseases and for the extermination of those already in the body foreign substances. This system is an obstacle to infections (bacterial, viral, fungal). When at work immune system failure occurs, then the likelihood of developing infections increases, this also leads to the development autoimmune diseases. Organs included in the human immune system: lymph glands (nodes), tonsils, thymus gland (thymus), bone marrow, spleen and intestinal lymphoid formations (Peyer's patches). The main role is played by a complex circulation system, which consists of lymphatic ducts connecting The lymph nodes. 1. WHAT IS THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

2. INDICATORS OF WEAK IMMUNITY The main sign of a weak immune system is constant colds. For example, the appearance of herpes on the lips can be safely considered a signal of a violation of the body's defenses. Other symptoms of a weakened immune system include fast fatiguability, increased sleepiness, constant feeling fatigue, aching joints and muscles, insomnia, and allergies. Moreover, the presence chronic diseases also speaks of weak immunity.

3. INDICATORS OF STRONG IMMUNITY A person does not get sick with anything, is resistant to the effects of microbes and viruses even during viral infections.

4. WHAT PROMOTES STRENGTHENING THE IMMUNE SYSTEM diet. physical activity. a correct understanding of life, which means that you need to learn not to envy, not to get angry, not to get upset, especially over trifles. observe sanitary and hygienic standards, do not overcool, do not overheat. harden the body both through cold procedures and through thermal procedures (bath, sauna). saturate the body with vitamins.

5. CAN A HUMAN LIFE WITHOUT AN IMMUNE SYSTEM? Any violation of the immune system has a devastating effect on the body. For example, allergies. The body of an allergic person reacts painfully to external stimuli. It can be eaten strawberries or oranges, poplar fluff swirling in the air, or pollen from alder catkins. The person begins to sneeze, his eyes water, a rash appears on the skin. Such hypersensitivity- an obvious malfunction of the immune system. Today, doctors are increasingly talking about weak immunity, that 60% of the population of our country suffer from immune deficiency. Weakened by stress and poor ecology, the body is not able to effectively fight the infection - too few antibodies are produced in it. A person with a weak immune system gets tired quickly, it is he who first falls ill during an influenza epidemic and gets sick longer and harder. "Plague of the 20th century" is called terrible disease that affects the body's immune system - AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). If there is a virus in the blood - the causative agent of AIDS, then there are almost no lymphocytes in it. Such an organism loses the ability to fight for itself, and a person can die from a common cold. The worst thing is that this disease is infectious, and it is transmitted through the blood.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION http://www.ayzdorov.ru/ttermini_immynnaya_sistema.php http://www.vesberdsk.ru/articles/read/18750 https://ru.wikipedia http://gazeta.aif.ru/online/kids /99/de01_02 2015

On the topic: methodological developments, presentations and notes

Presentation "The human respiratory system. Diseases of the respiratory system"

This presentation is a good visual material for biology lessons in grade 8 on the topic " Respiratory system human"...

Presentation "Human Respiratory System"

This presentation is a visual material for biology lessons in grade 8 on the topic "Human Respiratory System" ...

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ORGANS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM ARE DIVIDED INTO CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL. THE CENTRAL (PRIMARY) ORGANS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM ARE BONE MARROW AND THYMUS. IN THE CENTRAL ORGANS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM THE IMMUNE SYSTEM CELLS ARE MATURATED AND DIFFERENTIATED FROM STEM CELLS. IN THE PERIPHERAL (SECONDARY) ORGANS LYMPHOID CELLS MATURE TO THE FINAL STAGE OF DIFFERENTIATION. THESE ARE THE SPLEEN, LYMPHONODES AND LYMPHOID TISSUE OF THE MUCOUS MEMBRANES.

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CENTRAL ORGANS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM IN THE PERIODS OF EMBRYO AND POST-EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT

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CENTRAL ORGANS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM Bone marrow. All the formed elements of the blood are formed here. Hematopoietic tissue is represented by cylindrical accumulations around the arterioles. Forms cords that are separated from each other venous sinuses. The latter flow into the central sinusoid. The cells in cords are arranged in islands. Stem cells are localized mainly in the peripheral part of the medullary canal. As they mature, they will move to the center, where they penetrate the sinusoids and then enter the blood. Myeloid cells in the bone marrow make up 60-65% of the cells. Lymphoid - 10-15%. 60% of cells are immature cells. The rest are mature or newly entered the bone marrow. Every day, about 200 million cells migrate from the bone marrow to the periphery, which is 50% of their total number. In the human bone marrow, there is an intensive maturation of all types of cells, except for T-cells. The latter only pass initial stages differentiation (pro-T cells, migrating then to the thymus). Plasma cells are also found here, making up to 2% of the total number of cells, and producing antibodies.

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THYMUS. SPECIALIZED EXCLUSIVELY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF T-LYMPHOCYTES. HAS AN EPITHELIAL FRAMEWORK IN WHICH T-LYMPHOCYTES DEVELOP. IMMature T-LYMPHOCYTES DEVELOPING IN THE THYMUS ARE CALLED THYMOCYTES. MATURING T-LYMPHOCYTES ARE TRANSITOR CELLS COMING TO THE THYMUS IN THE FORM OF EARLY PRECURSORS FROM BONE MARROW (PRO-T-CELLS) AND AFTER MATURATION EMIGATE TO THE PERIPHERAL SECTION OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM. THREE MAIN EVENTS OCCURING IN THE PROCESS OF T-CELL MATURATION IN THE THYMUS: 1. THE APPEARANCE OF ANTI-GENE-RECOGNITION T-CELL RECEPTORS IN MATURING THYMocytes. 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF T-CELLS INTO SUBPOPULATIONS (CD4 AND CD8). 3. SELECTION (SELECTION) OF T-LYMPHOCYTE CLONES, ABLE TO RECOGNIZE ONLY FOREIGN ANTIGENS PROVIDED TO T-CELLS BY MOLECULES OF THE MAIN HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX OF THE OWN BODY. THYMUS IN HUMANS CONSISTS OF TWO lobules. EACH OF THEM IS LIMITED TO A CAPSULE FROM WHICH CONNECTIVE TISSUE PARTITIONS GO INSIDE. PARTITIONS DIVIDE THE PERIPHERAL PART OF THE ORGAN - THE BARK. THE INTERNAL PART OF THE ORGAN IS CALLED THE BRAIN.

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PROTHYMOCYTES ENTER THE CORTIC LAYER AND AS THEY MATURE, THEY MOVEMENT TO THE MEDULAR LAYER. THE TERM OF DEVELOPMENT OF THYMOCYTES IN MATURE T-CELLS - 20 DAYS. IMMature T-CELLS ENTER THE THYMUS WITHOUT T-CELL MARKERS ON THE MEMBRANE: CD3, CD4, CD8, T-CELL RECEPTOR. ALL OF THE ABOVE MARKERS APPEAR ON THEIR MEMBRANE IN THE EARLY STAGES OF MATURATION, THEN THE CELLS PRODUCE AND PASS TWO STAGES OF SELECTION. 1. POSITIVE SELECTION - SELECTION FOR THE ABILITY TO RECOGNIZE OWN MOLECULES OF THE MAIN HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX WITH THE HELP OF THE T-CELL RECEPTOR. CELLS UNABLE TO RECOGNIZE THEIR OWN MAIN HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX MOLECULES DIE BY APOPTOSIS (PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH). SURVIVE THYMOCYTES LOSE ONE OF FOUR T-CELL MARKERS - OR CD4 OR CD8 MOLECULE. AS A RESULT FROM THE SO-CALLED "DOUBLE POSITIVE" (CD4 CD8) THYMOCYTES BECOME SINGLE POSITIVE. THEIR MEMBRANE IS EXPRESSED OR A CD4 MOLECULE OR A CD8 MOLECULE. THEREFORE, DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO MAIN POPULATIONS OF T-CELLS - CYTOTOXIC CD8 CELLS AND HELPER CD4 CELLS. 2. NEGATIVE SELECTION - SELECTION OF CELLS FOR THEIR ABILITY TO NOT RECOGNIZE THE BODY'S OWN ANTIGENS. AT THIS STAGE, POTENTIALLY AUTO-REACTIVE CELLS, THAT IS CELLS WHICH RECEPTOR IS ABLE TO RECOGNIZE THE OWN ORGANISM'S ANTIGENS, ARE ELIMINED. NEGATIVE SELECTION LAYS THE FOUNDATIONS FOR THE FORMATION OF TOLERANCE, ie, THE IMMUNE SYSTEM'S UNRESPONSIBILITY TO OWN ANTIGENS. AFTER TWO SELECTION STAGES, ONLY 2% OF THYMOCYTES SURVIVE. SURVIVED THYMocytes migrate to the medulla and then go out into the blood, turning into "naive" T-lymphocytes.

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PERIPHERAL LYMPHOID ORGANS Scattered throughout the body. The main function of peripheral lymphoid organs is the activation of naive T- and B-lymphocytes with the subsequent formation of effector lymphocytes. There are encapsulated peripheral organs of the immune system (spleen and lymph nodes) and non-encapsulated lymphoid organs and tissues.

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LYMPH NODES COMPOSE THE BASIC MASS OF ORGANIZED LYMPHOID TISSUE. THEY ARE REGIONALLY LOCATED AND NAMED ACCORDING TO THE LOCALIZATION (AXXILLARY, INGUINAL, PARAOTHER, ETC.). LYMPH NODES PROTECT THE BODY FROM ANTIGENS PENETRATING THROUGH THE SKIN AND MUCOUS MEMBRANES. FOREIGN ANTIGENS ARE TRANSPORTED TO REGIONAL LYMPHONODES BY LYMPHATIC VESSELS, OR WITH THE HELP OF SPECIALIZED ANTIGENPRESENTING CELLS, OR WITH THE FLUID FLOW. IN THE LYMPHONODES, ANTIGENS ARE PRESENTED TO NAIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES BY PROFESSIONAL ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS. THE RESULT OF THE INTERACTION OF T-CELLS AND ANTIGENPRESENTING CELLS IS THE TRANSFORMATION OF NAIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES INTO MATURE EFFECTOR CELLS CAPABLE OF PERFORMING PROTECTIVE FUNCTIONS. The lymph nodes have a B-cell cortical region (cortical zone), a T-cell paracortic region (zone) and the central, medical (brain) zone formed by cellousness containing T- and B-lymphocytes, plasma cells and macrophages. THE CORTICAL AND PARACORTICAL AREAS ARE SEPARATED BY CONNECTIVE TISSUE TRABECULA INTO RADIAL SECTORS.

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LYMPH ENTERS THE NODE BY SEVERAL Afferent (afferent) LYMPHATIC VESSELS THROUGH THE SUBCAPSULAR ZONE COVERING THE CORTICAL AREA. THE LYMPH NODE EXITS BY THE SINGLE EXHAUSTING (EFERENT) LYMPHATIC VESSEL IN THE AREA OF THE SO-CALLED GATES. BLOOD ENTERS AND LEAVES THROUGH THE GATE ON THE APPROPRIATE VESSELS. IN THE CORTICAL AREA ARE LYMPHOID FOLLICLES CONTAINING REPRODUCTION CENTERS, OR "GERMINE CENTERS", IN WHICH THE B-CELLS THAT MEET THE ANTIGEN ARE MATTERING.

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THE PROCESS OF MATURATION IS CALLED AFFINE MATURATION. IT IS ACCOMPANIED WITH SOMATIC HYPERMUTATIONS OF VARIABLE GENES OF IMMUNOGLOBULINS, COMING WITH A FREQUENCY 10 TIMES EXCEEDING THE FREQUENCY OF SPONTANEOUS MUTATIONS. SOMATIC HYPERMUTATIONS LEAD TO INCREASED ANTIBODY AFFINITY WITH SUBSEQUENT REPRODUCTION AND CONVERSION OF B-CELLS INTO PLASMA ANTIBODY-PRODUCING CELLS. PLASMA CELLS ARE THE FINAL STAGE OF B-LYMPHOCYTE MATURATION. T-LYMPHOCYTES ARE LOCALIZED IN THE PARACORTICAL AREA. IT'S CALLED T-DEPENDENT. THE T-DEPENDENT REGION CONTAINS MANY T-CELLS AND CELLS WITH MULTIPLE OUTBREAKS (DENDRITIC INTERDIGITAL CELLS). THESE CELLS ARE ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS ENTERED INTO THE LYMPH NODE BY AFFERENT LYMPHATIC VESSELS AFTER ENCOUNTERING THE FOREIGN ANTIGEN ON THE PERIPHERY. NAIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES, IN TURN, ENTER THE LYMPH NODES WITH LYMPH FLOW AND THROUGH POST-CAPILLARY VENULES, HAVING AREAS OF THE SO-CALLED HIGH ENDOTHELIUM. IN THE T-CELL AREA, NAIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES ACTIVATE WITH THE HELP OF ANTIGENPRESENTING DENDRITIC CELLS. ACTIVATION LEADS TO PROLIFERATION AND FORMATION OF CLONES OF EFFECTIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES, WHICH ARE ALSO CALLED REINFORCED T-CELLS. THE LAST ARE THE FINAL STAGE OF MATURATION AND DIFFERENTIATION OF T-LYMPHOCYTES. THEY LEAVE THE LYMPHONODES TO PERFORM THE EFFECTOR FUNCTIONS FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF WHICH HAVE BEEN PROGRAMMED BY ALL PREVIOUS DEVELOPMENT.

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THE SPLEEN IS A LARGE LYMPHOID ORGAN DIFFERING FROM THE LYMPHONODES BY THE PRESENCE OF A LARGE NUMBER OF ERYTHROCYTES. THE MAIN IMMUNOLOGICAL FUNCTION IS IN THE ACCUMULATION OF ANTIGENS BROUGHT WITH THE BLOOD AND IN THE ACTIVATION OF T- AND B-LYMPHOCYTES REACTING TO THE ANTIGEN BROUGHT IN THE BLOOD. THE SPLEEN IS TWO MAIN TYPES OF TISSUE: WHITE PULSE AND RED PULSE. THE WHITE PULP CONSISTS OF LYMPHOID TISSUE FORMING PERIARTERIOLAR LYMPHOID CLUTCHES AROUND THE ARTERIOLES. CLUTCHES HAVE T- AND B-CELL AREAS. A T-DEPENDENT AREA OF THE CLUTCH, LIKE THE T-DEPENDENT AREA OF THE LYMPHONODES, DIRECTLY SURROUNDS THE ARTERIOLE. B-CELL FOLLICLES COMPOSE THE B-CELL AREA AND ARE LOCATED CLOSE TO THE EDGE OF THE CLUTCH. THE FOLLICLES HAVE REPRODUCTION CENTERS LIKE THE GEM CENTERS OF THE LYMPHONODES. DENDRITIC CELLS AND MACROPHAGES PRESENTING ANTIGEN TO B-CELLS WITH THE SUBSEQUENT TRANSFORMATION OF THE LAST INTO PLASMA CELLS ARE LOCALIZED IN REPRODUCTION CENTERS. MATURE PLASMA CELLS PASS BY THE VASCULAR LINTACHES TO THE RED PULSE. RED PULP IS A MESH NETWORK FORMED BY VENOUS SINUSOIDS, CELL STRANDS AND FILLED WITH ERYTHROCYTES, PLATELETS, MACROPHAGES AND ALSO OTHER CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM. RED PULP IS A PLACE OF DEPOSITION OF ERYTHROCYTES AND PLATELETS. THE CAPILLARIES ENDING IN THE CENTRAL ARTERIOLES OF THE WHITE PULP OPEN FREELY IN BOTH THE WHITE PULP AND IN THE STRANDS OF THE RED PULP. BLOOD CELLS, WHEN REACHING THE STRENGTH RED PULP, ARE RETAINED IN THEM. HERE MACROPHAGES RECOGNIZE AND PHAGOCYTE OBLIGATORY RBCs AND PLATELETS. PLASMA CELLS THAT HAVE MOVED INTO THE WHITE PULP PERFORM THE SYNTHESIS OF IMMUNOGLOBULINS. BLOOD CELLS NOT ABSORBED AND NOT DESTROYED BY PHAGOCYTES PASS THROUGH THE EPITHELIAL LAYING OF THE VENOUS SINUSOIDS AND RETURN TO THE BLOOD FLOW WITH PROTEINS AND OTHER PLASMA COMPONENTS.

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UNENCAPSULATED LYMPHOID TISSUE Most of the unencapsulated lymphoid tissue is located in the mucous membranes. In addition, non-encapsulated lymphoid tissue is localized in the skin and other tissues. The lymphoid tissue of the mucous membranes protects only the mucous surfaces. This distinguishes it from the lymph nodes, which protect against antigens that penetrate both through the mucous membranes and through the skin. The main effector mechanism of local immunity at the mucosal level is the production and transport of secretory IgA antibodies directly to the surface of the epithelium. Most often, foreign antigens enter the body through the mucous membranes. In this regard, antibodies of the IgA class are produced in the body in the greatest amount relative to antibodies of other isotypes (up to 3 g per day). The lymphoid tissue of the mucous membranes includes: - Lymphoid organs and formations associated with gastrointestinal tract(GALT - gut-associated lymphoid tissues). Include lymphoid organs of the peripharyngeal ring (tonsils, adenoids), appendix, Peyer's patches, intraepithelial lymphocytes of the intestinal mucosa. - Lymphoid tissue associated with the bronchi and bronchioles (BALT - bronchial-associated lymphoid tissue), as well as intraepithelial lymphocytes of the mucous membrane respiratory tract. - Lymphoid tissue of other mucous membranes (MALT - mucosal associated lymphoid tissue), including the lymphoid tissue of the mucous membrane of the urogenital tract as the main component. The lymphoid tissue of the mucosa is localized most often in the basal plate of the mucous membranes (lamina propria) and in the submucosa. Peyer's patches, usually found in the lower part of the ileum, can serve as an example of mucosal lymphoid tissue. Each plaque is adjacent to a patch of gut epithelium called follicle-associated epithelium. This area contains the so-called M-cells. Through M-cells, bacteria and other foreign antigens enter the subepithelial layer from the intestinal lumen.

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THE BASIC MASS OF PEYER'S PATCH LYMPHOCYTES IS IN THE B-CELL FOLLICLE WITH THE GEM CENTER IN THE MIDDLE. T-CELL ZONES SURROUND THE FOLLICLE CLOSER TO THE LAYER OF EPITHELIAL CELLS. THE MAIN FUNCTIONAL LOAD OF PEYER'S PATCHES IS THE ACTIVATION OF B-LYMPHOCYTES AND THEIR DIFFERENTIATION INTO PLASMACYTES PRODUCING ANTIBODIES OF IGA AND IGE CLASSES. EXCEPT ORGANIZED LYMPHOID TISSUE IN THE EPITHELIAL LAYER OF THE MUCOUS AND IN LAMINA PROPRIA ALSO MEET SINGLE DISSEMINATED T-LYMPHOCYTES. THEY CONTAIN BOTH ΑΒ T-CELL RECEPTOR AND ΓΔ T-CELL RECEPTOR. IN ADDITION TO THE LYMPHOID TISSUE OF THE MUCOUS SURFACES, THE COMPOSITION OF THE NON-ENCAPSULATED LYMPHOID TISSUE INCLUDES: - SKIN-ASSOCIATED LYMPHOID TISSUE AND INTRAEPITHELIAL SKIN LYMPHOCYTES; - LYMPH TRANSPORTING ALIEN ANTIGENS AND CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM; - PERIPHERAL BLOOD UNITING ALL ORGANS AND TISSUES AND CARRYING OUT THE TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION FUNCTION; - CUMULATIONS OF LYMPHOID CELLS AND SINGLE LYMPHOID CELLS OF OTHER ORGANS AND TISSUES. AN EXAMPLE IS LIVER LYMPHOCYTES. THE LIVER PERFORMS VERY IMPORTANT IMMUNOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS, ALTHOUGH IN THE Strict SENSE FOR THE ADULTS, IT IS NOT CONSIDERED AN ORGANIUM OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM. NEVER THERE, ALMOST HALF OF THE TISSUE MACROPHAGES OF THE ORGANISM ARE LOCALIZED IN IT. THEY PHAGOCYTE AND DECELETE IMMUNE COMPLEXES WHICH BRING HERE ON THEIR SURFACE ERYTHROCYTES. IN ADDITION, IT IS SUPPOSED THAT LYMPHOCYTES LOCALIZED IN THE LIVER AND IN THE SUBMUCOUS INTESTINE HAVE SUPPRESSOR FUNCTIONS AND PROVIDE PERMANENT MAINTENANCE OF IMMUNOLOGICAL TOLERANCE (INRESPONSE) TO FOOD.

Epidemics of plague, cholera, smallpox, influenza left a deep mark in the history of mankind. In the 14th century, a terrible epidemic of the Black Death swept through Europe, killing 15 million people. It was a plague that engulfed all countries and from which 100 million people died. No less terrible trace left behind and smallpox called "black pox". The smallpox virus caused the death of 400 million people, and the survivors became blind forever. 6 epidemics of cholera were registered, the last one in India, Bangladesh. The flu epidemic called "Spanish flu" claimed the lives of hundreds of thousands of people in the years, epidemics are known as "Asian", "Hong Kong", and today - "swine" flu.

Incidence child population In the structure of the general morbidity of the child population over a number of years: in the first place - diseases of the respiratory system; second place - diseases of the digestive system; in the third place - diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue and illness nervous system

Morbidity of the child population Statistical studies recent years put forward on one of the first places in human pathology diseases associated with a decrease in immunity Over the past 5 years, the level of general morbidity in children has increased by 12.9%. the greatest growth is observed in the classes of diseases of the nervous system - by 48.1%, neoplasms - by 46.7%, pathologies of the circulatory system - by 43.7%, diseases of the musculoskeletal system - by 29.8%, endocrine system- by 26.6%.

immunity from lat. Immunities - liberation from something The immune system provides human body multi-stage protection against alien invasions This is a specific defensive reaction of the body, which is based on the ability to resist the action of living bodies and substances that differ from it in hereditarily alien properties, maintain its integrity and biological individuality. The main purpose of the immune system is to determine what is in the body and what someone else's. One's own must be left alone, and someone else's must be destroyed, and as soon as possible Immunity ensures the functioning of the body as a single whole, consisting of one hundred trillion cells

Antigen - antibody All substances (microbes, viruses, dust particles, plant pollen, etc.) that enter the body from outside are called antigens. It is the influence of antigens that determines when they enter internal environment body, the formation of protein structures called antibodies The main structural and functional unit of the immune system is the lymphocyte

Components of the human immune system 1. Central lymphoid organs: - thymus (thymus gland); - Bone marrow; 2. Peripheral lymphoid organs: - lymph nodes - spleen - tonsils - lymphoid formations of the large intestine, appendix, lungs, 3. Immunocompetent cells: - lymphocytes; - monocytes; - polynuclear leukocytes; - white process epidermocytes of the skin (Langerhans cells);

Nonspecific protective factors of the body The first protective barrier Nonspecific mechanisms of immunity are general factors and protective adaptations of the body Protective barriers The first protective barrier Impermeability of healthy skin and mucous membranes (gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, genital organs) Impenetrability of histohematological barriers Presence of bactericidal substances in biological fluids (saliva, tear, blood, cerebrospinal fluid) and other secrets of the sebaceous and sweat glands have a bactericidal effect against many infections

Nonspecific protective factors of the body The second protective barrier The second protective barrier is an inflammatory reaction at the site of the introduction of the microorganism. The leading role in this process belongs to phagocytosis (cellular immunity factor) Phagocytosis is the absorption and enzymatic digestion of microbes or other particles by macro- and microphages, as a result of which the body is released from harmful foreign substances Phagocytes are the largest cells of the human body, they perform an important non-specific protection function. Protects the body from any penetration into its internal environment. And this is his, phagocyte, purpose. The phagocyte reaction proceeds in three stages: 1. Movement towards the target 2. Enveloping foreign body 3. Absorption and digestion (intracellular digestion)

Non-specific body defense factors The third protective barrier operates when the infection spreads further. These are lymph nodes and blood (humoral immunity factors). Each of these factors of the three barriers and adaptations is directed against all microbes. Nonspecific protective factors neutralize even those substances that the body has not encountered before

Specific mechanisms of immunity This is antibody formation in the lymph nodes, spleen, liver and bone marrow Specific antibodies are produced by the body in response to the artificial introduction of an antigen or as a result of a natural encounter with a microorganism (infectious disease) Antigens are substances that carry a sign of foreignness (bacteria, proteins, viruses , toxins, cellular elements) Antigens are pathogens themselves or their metabolic products (endotoxins) and decay products of bacteria (exotoxins) Antibodies are proteins that can bind to antigens and neutralize them. They are strictly specific, i.e. act only against those microorganisms or toxins, in response to the introduction of which they have developed.

Specific immunity Divided into innate and acquired Innate immunity - inherent in a person from birth, inherited from parents. Immune substances from mother to fetus through the placenta. A special case of innate immunity can be considered the immunity received by a newborn with mother's milk Acquired immunity - arises (acquired) in the process of life and is divided into natural and artificial Natural acquired - occurs after the transfer of an infectious disease: after recovery, antibodies to the causative agent of this disease remain in the blood. Artificial - produced after special medical events and it can be active and passive

Artificial Immunity Created by administering vaccines and sera Vaccines are preparations of microbial cells or their toxins, the use of which is called vaccination. Antibodies appear in the human body 1-2 weeks after the introduction of vaccines Serums - more often used to treat infectious patients and less often - for prevention infectious diseases

Vaccinal prophylaxis This is the main practical purpose of vaccines. Modern vaccine preparations are divided into 5 groups: 1. Vaccines from live pathogens 2. Vaccines from killed microbes 3. Chemical vaccines 4. Toxoids 5. Associated, i.e. combined (for example, DTP - associated pertussis-diphtheria-tetanus vaccine)

Serums Serums are prepared from the blood of recovered patients. infectious disease people or by artificial infection with animal microbes. The main types of sera: 1. Antitoxic sera neutralize the poisons of microbes (anti-diphtheria, tetanus, etc.) 2. Antimicrobial sera inactivate bacterial cells and viruses, are used against a number of diseases, more often in the form of gamma globulins from human blood - against measles, polio, infectious hepatitis etc. This safe drugs, because they do not contain pathogens. Immune sera contain ready-made antibodies and act from the first minutes after administration.

NATIONAL VACATION CALENDAR Age Name of vaccination 12 hours First hepatitis B vaccination 3-7 days Tuberculosis vaccination 1 month Second hepatitis B vaccination 3 months First diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus, polio vaccination 4.5 months Second diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus, polio vaccination 6 months Third diphtheria, whooping cough vaccination , tetanus, poliomyelitis Third vaccination hepatitis B 12 months Vaccination measles, rubella, mumps

Critical periods in the formation of the immune system of children The first critical period is the neonatal period (up to 28 days of life) The second critical period is 3-6 months of life, due to the destruction of maternal antibodies in the child's body The third critical period is 2-3 years of the child's life The fourth critical period is 6-7 years Fifth critical period - adolescence(12-13 years for girls; years for boys)

Factors that reduce the protective functions of the body The main factors: alcoholization and alcoholism drug addiction and drug addiction psycho-emotional stress physical inactivity sleep deficit overweight Human susceptibility to infection depends on: individual characteristics of the person; environment living conditions and human activities lifestyle

Increasing the protective forces of the child's body restorative methods: hardening, contrast air baths, dress the baby according to the weather, take multivitamins, try to limit contact with other children as much as possible during periods of seasonal outbreaks viral diseases(for example, during a flu epidemic, you should not take your child to Christmas trees and other mass events) traditional medicine eg garlic and onion When should I see an immunologist? With frequent colds occurring with complications (ARVI, turning into bronchitis - inflammation of the bronchi, pneumonia - inflammation of the lungs or the occurrence of purulent otitis media against the background of SARS - inflammation of the middle ear, etc.) If you are re-infected with infections, to which lifelong immunity should be developed ( chickenpox, rubella, measles, etc.). However, in such cases, it must be borne in mind that if the baby has been ill with these diseases before the age of 1 year, then immunity to them may be unstable, and not give lifelong protection.

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The organs of the immune system are divided into central and peripheral. The central (primary) organs of the immune system include the bone marrow and thymus. In the central organs of the immune system, maturation and differentiation of immune system cells from stem cells occurs. In peripheral (secondary) organs, lymphoid cells mature to the final stage of differentiation. These include the spleen, lymph nodes and lymphoid tissue of the mucous membranes.

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Central organs of the immune system Bone marrow. All the formed elements of the blood are formed here. Hematopoietic tissue is represented by cylindrical accumulations around the arterioles. Forms cords that are separated from each other by venous sinuses. The latter flow into the central sinusoid. The cells in cords are arranged in islands. Stem cells are localized mainly in the peripheral part of the medullary canal. As they mature, they will move to the center, where they penetrate the sinusoids and then enter the blood. Myeloid cells in the bone marrow make up 60-65% of the cells. Lymphoid - 10-15%. 60% of cells are immature cells. The rest are mature or newly entered the bone marrow. Every day, about 200 million cells migrate from the bone marrow to the periphery, which is 50% of their total number. In the human bone marrow, there is an intensive maturation of all types of cells, except for T-cells. The latter go through only the initial stages of differentiation (pro-T cells, which then migrate to the thymus). Plasma cells are also found here, making up to 2% of the total number of cells, and producing antibodies.

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thymus. Specialized exclusively in the development of T-lymphocytes. It has an epithelial framework in which T-lymphocytes develop. Immature T-lymphocytes that develop in the thymus are called thymocytes. Maturing T-lymphocytes are transient cells that enter the thymus as early precursors from the bone marrow (pro-T cells) and, after maturation, migrate to the peripheral part of the immune system. Three main events occurring during the maturation of T-cells in the thymus: 1. The appearance of antigen-recognizing T-cell receptors in maturing thymocytes. 2. Differentiation of T cells into subpopulations (CD4 and CD8). 3. Selection (selection) of T-lymphocyte clones capable of recognizing only foreign antigens presented to T-cells by molecules of the main histocompatibility complex of one's own organism. The human thymus consists of two lobules. Each of them is limited by a capsule, from which connective tissue partitions go inward. Partitions divide into lobules the peripheral part of the organ - the cortex. The inner part of the organ is called the brain.

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Prothymocytes enter the cortical layer and, as they mature, move to the medulla. The term for the development of thymocytes into mature T cells is 20 days. Immature T-cells enter the thymus without T-cell markers on the membrane: CD3, CD4, CD8, T-cell receptor. On early stages maturation, all of the above markers appear on their membrane, then the cells multiply and go through two stages of selection. 1. Positive selection - selection for the ability to recognize own molecules of the major histocompatibility complex using the T-cell receptor. Cells unable to recognize their own major histocompatibility complex molecules die by apoptosis (programmed cell death). Surviving thymocytes lose one of the four T-cell markers, either the CD4 or CD8 molecule. As a result, from the so-called "double positive" (CD4 CD8) thymocytes become single positive. Their membrane expresses either a CD4 molecule or a CD8 molecule. Thus, differences are established between the two main populations of T cells - cytotoxic CD8 cells and helper CD4 cells. 2. Negative selection - selection of cells for their ability not to recognize the body's own antigens. At this stage, potentially autoreactive cells are eliminated, that is, cells whose receptor is able to recognize the antigens of its own body. Negative selection lays the foundation for the formation of tolerance, that is, the non-response of the immune system to its own antigens. After two stages of selection, only 2% of thymocytes survive. The surviving thymocytes migrate to the medulla and then enter the blood, turning into "naive" T-lymphocytes.

slide number 9

Description of the slide:

Peripheral lymphoid organs Scattered throughout the body. The main function of peripheral lymphoid organs is the activation of naive T- and B-lymphocytes with the subsequent formation of effector lymphocytes. There are encapsulated peripheral organs of the immune system (spleen and lymph nodes) and non-encapsulated lymphoid organs and tissues.

slide number 10

Description of the slide:

Lymph nodes make up the bulk of organized lymphoid tissue. They are located regionally and are named according to their location (axillary, inguinal, parotid, etc.). Lymph nodes protect the body from antigens that penetrate the skin and mucous membranes. Foreign antigens are transported to the regional lymph nodes via the lymphatics, either by specialized antigen-presenting cells or by fluid flow. In the lymph nodes, antigens are presented to naive T-lymphocytes by professional antigen-presenting cells. The result of the interaction of T-cells and antigen-presenting cells is the transformation of naive T-lymphocytes into mature effector cells capable of performing protective functions. Lymph nodes have a B-cell cortical region (cortical zone), a T-cell paracortical region (zone) and a central, medullary (brain) zone formed by cell strands containing T- and B-lymphocytes, plasma cells and macrophages. The cortical and paracortical regions are divided by connective tissue trabeculae into radial sectors.

slide number 11

Description of the slide:

slide number 12

Description of the slide:

Lymph enters the node through several afferent (afferent) lymphatic vessels through the subcapsular zone covering the cortical region. From the lymph node, the lymph exits through a single efferent (efferent) lymphatic vessel in the region of the so-called gate. Blood enters and exits the lymph node through the gate through the corresponding vessels. In the cortical region, lymphoid follicles are located, containing reproduction centers, or "germinal centers", in which the maturation of B-cells encountered with the antigen takes place.

slide number 13

Description of the slide:

slide number 14

Description of the slide:

The maturation process is called affine maturation. It is accompanied by somatic hypermutations of variable immunoglobulin genes, occurring at a frequency 10 times higher than the frequency of spontaneous mutations. Somatic hypermutations lead to an increase in the affinity of antibodies with subsequent multiplication and transformation of B cells into plasmatic antibody-producing cells. Plasma cells represent the final stage of maturation of B-lymphocytes. T-lymphocytes are localized in the paracortical region. It is called T-dependent. The T-dependent region contains many T cells and cells with multiple outgrowths (dendritic interdigital cells). These cells are antigen-presenting cells that entered the lymph node through afferent lymphatic vessels after encountering a foreign antigen in the periphery. Naive T-lymphocytes, in turn, enter the lymph nodes with lymph flow and through post-capillary venules, which have areas of the so-called high endothelium. In the T-cell region, naive T-lymphocytes are activated by antigen-presenting dendritic cells. Activation leads to proliferation and the formation of clones of effector T-lymphocytes, which are also called reinforced T-cells. The latter are the final stage of maturation and differentiation of T-lymphocytes. They leave the lymph nodes to perform effector functions, for the implementation of which they were programmed by all previous development.

slide number 15

Description of the slide:

The spleen is a large lymphoid organ that differs from the lymph nodes in the presence of a large number of red blood cells. The main immunological function consists in the accumulation of antigens brought with the blood, and in the activation of T- and B-lymphocytes that react to the antigen brought in by the blood. There are two main types of tissue in the spleen: white pulp and red pulp. The white pulp consists of lymphoid tissue that forms periarteriolar lymphoid muffs around the arterioles. The clutches have T- and B-cell regions. A T-dependent region of the clutch, similar to the T-dependent region of the lymph nodes, immediately surrounds the arteriole. B-cell follicles make up the B-cell region and are located closer to the edge of the sleeve. In the follicles there are reproduction centers similar to the germinal centers of the lymph nodes. In reproduction centers, dendritic cells and macrophages are localized, presenting antigen to B-cells with subsequent transformation of the latter into plasma cells. Maturing plasma cells pass through the vascular bridges into the red pulp. The red pulp is a cellular network formed by venous sinusoids, cell cords and filled with erythrocytes, platelets, macrophages, and other cells of the immune system. The red pulp is the site of deposition of erythrocytes and platelets. The capillaries that terminate in the central arterioles of the white pulp open freely both in the white pulp and in the strands of the red pulp. Blood cells, having reached the strands of the red pulp, linger in them. Here macrophages recognize and phagocytize obsolete erythrocytes and platelets. Plasma cells that have moved into the white pulp carry out the synthesis of immunoglobulins. Blood cells not absorbed and destroyed by phagocytes pass through the epithelial lining of venous sinusoids and return to the bloodstream along with proteins and other plasma components.

slide number 16

Description of the slide:

Unencapsulated lymphoid tissue Most of the unencapsulated lymphoid tissue is located in the mucous membranes. In addition, non-encapsulated lymphoid tissue is localized in the skin and other tissues. The lymphoid tissue of the mucous membranes protects only the mucous surfaces. This distinguishes it from the lymph nodes, which protect against antigens that penetrate both through the mucous membranes and through the skin. The main effector mechanism of local immunity at the mucosal level is the production and transport of secretory IgA antibodies directly to the surface of the epithelium. Most often, foreign antigens enter the body through the mucous membranes. In this regard, antibodies of the IgA class are produced in the body in the greatest amount relative to antibodies of other isotypes (up to 3 g per day). The lymphoid tissue of the mucous membranes includes: - Lymphoid organs and formations associated with the gastrointestinal tract (GALT - gut-associated lymphoid tissues). Include lymphoid organs of the peripharyngeal ring (tonsils, adenoids), appendix, Peyer's patches, intraepithelial lymphocytes of the intestinal mucosa. - Lymphoid tissue associated with the bronchi and bronchioles (BALT - bronchial-associated lymphoid tissue), as well as intraepithelial lymphocytes of the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract. - Lymphoid tissue of other mucous membranes (MALT - mucosal associated lymphoid tissue), including the lymphoid tissue of the mucous membrane of the urogenital tract as the main component. The lymphoid tissue of the mucosa is localized most often in the basal plate of the mucous membranes (lamina propria) and in the submucosa. Peyer's patches, usually found in the lower part of the ileum, can serve as an example of mucosal lymphoid tissue. Each plaque is adjacent to a patch of gut epithelium called follicle-associated epithelium. This area contains the so-called M-cells. Through M-cells, bacteria and other foreign antigens enter the subepithelial layer from the intestinal lumen.

slide number 17

Description of the slide:

slide number 18

Description of the slide:

The bulk of the Peyer's patch lymphocytes falls on the B-cell follicle with the germinal center in the middle. T-cell zones surround the follicle closer to the epithelial cell layer. The main functional load of Peyer's patches is the activation of B-lymphocytes and their differentiation into plasma cells producing antibodies of the IgA and IgE classes. In addition to organized lymphoid tissue, single disseminated T-lymphocytes are also found in the epithelial layer of mucous membranes and in the lamina propria. They contain both the αβ T cell receptor and the γδ T cell receptor. In addition to mucosal surface lymphoid tissue, non-encapsulated lymphoid tissue includes: skin-associated lymphoid tissue and skin intraepithelial lymphocytes; - lymph transporting foreign antigens and cells of the immune system; - peripheral blood, which unites all organs and tissues and performs a transport and communication function; - accumulations of lymphoid cells and single lymphoid cells of other organs and tissues. An example is liver lymphocytes. The liver performs quite important immunological functions, although in the strict sense for an adult organism it is not considered an organ of the immune system. Nevertheless, almost half of the body's tissue macrophages are localized in it. They phagocytize and break down the immune complexes that red blood cells bring here on their surface. In addition, it is assumed that lymphocytes localized in the liver and in the intestinal submucosa have suppressor functions and ensure the constant maintenance of immunological tolerance (non-response) to food.

The organs of the immune system include: bone marrow, thymus gland (thymus), accumulations of lymphoid tissue located in the walls of hollow organs (respiratory system

BALT and digestive system- SALT) and urogenital apparatus, lymph nodes and spleen.

PERIPHERAL ORGANS OF IMMUNE

SPLEEN

Place of preservation of the reserve of circulating lymphocytes, including memory cells. capture

processing and presentation of antigens that have entered the bloodstream. Antigen recognition by T- and B-lymphocyte receptors, their activation, proliferation, differentiation, production of immunoglobulins - antibodies, production of cytokines

REGIONAL LYMPHONODES

Same as in the spleen, but for antigens, transported along the lymphatic pathways

Scheme of the structure of the white and red pulp of the spleen

In white pulp

there are clusters of pymphoid cells (periarterial lymphatic muffs, vaginas) located around arterioles and germinal centers.

The arteriole is closely surrounded by a T-dependent zone of the coupling.

Closer to the edge of the sleeve are B-cell follicles and germinal centers.

red pulp

contains capillary loops, erythrocytes and macrophages.

Lymph nodes filter the lymph, extracting foreign substances and antigens from it. Antigen-dependent proliferation and differentiation of T- and B-lymphocytes.

The lymph node is covered with a connective tissue capsule, from which trabeculae extend. It consists of the cortical (cortical) zone, the paracortical zone, the cerebral cords and the cerebral sinus.

Peyer's patch has three components.

1. epithelial dome, consisting of epithelium devoid of intestinal villi and containing numerous M-cells;

2. lymphoid follicle with a reproduction center (germinal center) filled with B-lymphocytes;

3. interfollicular zone of cells containing mainly T-lymphocytes and interdigital cells.

Active immunity is a type of immunity

based on the formation of long-term immunological memory (natural

or artificial)

Passive Immunity occurs when antibodies or sensitized T-lymphocytes, which were formed in

the body of another person or animal natural or artificial)

Functions of immunoglobulins (antibodies)

		IMMUNOGLOBULIN	ACTIONS
		IMMUNOGLOBULIN G Transplacental			Immunity of newborns
			bloodstream		Neutralization of toxins
					viruses. Activation
					complement.
		IMMUNOGLOBULIN M BLOOD ONLY			Educationimmune
					complexes, binding and
					complement activation
			Subcutaneous
		IMMUNOGLOBULIN E submucosal
			space
		IMMUNOGLOBULIN A Mucosal secretions,